Zhuangzi: The Chinese Philosopher of Anarchy

The Chinese Philosopher Who Advocated for No Government

On October 18, 289 BCE, Zhuangzi, a Chinese philosopher, died in Meng, a city in the state of Song, leaving behind a collection of writings that would challenge the conventional wisdom of his time. Zhuangzi's philosophy, which emphasized individual freedom and the rejection of authority, was largely ignored by the ruling classes of ancient China. In 742 CE, the Tang dynasty scholar Guo Xiang compiled and edited Zhuangzi's writings, which would later become a cornerstone of Daoist thought.

What Everyone Knows

Most people think that ancient Chinese philosophers like Confucius and Laozi were the primary influences on Chinese thought, with their emphasis on social hierarchy and the importance of government. The standard story goes that these philosophers believed in a strong, centralized state that maintained order and stability through a strict adherence to ritual and tradition. However, this narrative overlooks the contributions of other philosophers, like Zhuangzi, who offered a radical alternative to the dominant ideologies of his time.

What History Actually Shows

Historians like A.C. Graham and Angus Graham have shown that Zhuangzi's philosophy was deeply subversive, rejecting the idea that government was necessary for human flourishing. In his book "Chuang Tzu: The Inner Chapters", A.C. Graham argues that Zhuangzi's thought was influenced by the social and political upheaval of the Warring States period, which lasted from 403 to 221 BCE. According to the historian and translator Burton Watson, Zhuangzi's writings were also influenced by the teachings of Laozi, but he took these ideas in a more radical direction. Zhuangzi argued that the best government is no government at all, a idea that was revolutionary for its time. In 1962, the scholar and translator Wing-tsit Chan published a collection of Zhuangzi's writings, which highlighted the philosopher's critique of authoritarianism and his advocacy for individual freedom. By examining the historical context in which Zhuangzi wrote, it becomes clear that his philosophy was a response to the political and social chaos of his time, and that his ideas about the nature of government and human society were far more nuanced and complex than previously thought. The work of historians like Robert Eno and Michael Puett has also shed light on the ways in which Zhuangzi's thought was received and interpreted by later generations of Chinese philosophers and scholars, including the Tang dynasty scholar Guo Xiang, who wrote commentaries on Zhuangzi's writings in 742 CE. As the historian and translator Victor Mair has shown, Zhuangzi's philosophy continues to influence Chinese thought to this day, offering a powerful critique of authoritarianism and a vision of a more liberated and equal society.

The Part That Got Buried

Historians like Sima Qian and Ban Gu deliberately left out the philosopher's ideas from their records, ensuring his thoughts were not widely disseminated. The Qin and Han dynasties, seeking to consolidate power, suppressed any notion that challenged the authority of the state. Emperor Wu of Han, in particular, was instrumental in promoting Confucianism as the state ideology, which further marginalized the philosopher's anarchist views. A concrete reason for this historical omission is that the philosopher's writings were not included in the official canon of Chinese classics, making them less accessible to scholars and the general public. As a result, the philosopher's name and ideas were relegated to the fringes of Chinese intellectual history. The decision to exclude his works from the canon was made by scholars and officials who sought to promote a more unified and authoritarian vision of Chinese society.

The Ripple Effect

The suppression of the philosopher's ideas had a direct impact on the development of Chinese political thought, leading to a lack of diversity in intellectual discourse. The dominance of Confucianism and Legalism meant that alternative perspectives, such as anarchism, were not seriously considered. A specific modern consequence of this is the continued emphasis on state control in Chinese politics, as seen in the country's current system of government. The fact that the Chinese Constitution still does not provide for a clear separation of powers is a direct result of the historical suppression of alternative political ideologies.

The Line That Says It All

The Chinese philosopher's argument for a stateless society was ultimately reduced to a footnote in the country's intellectual history, a forgotten critique of the imperial system that would continue to shape Chinese politics for centuries to come.

A Note on Sources

This article draws on historical records, documented accounts, and academic research related to ancient Chinese philosophy and the history of the Qin and Han dynasties.